You’re wiping dust off your ficus leaves. Your finger hits something that won’t come off. You look closer.
Small brown bumps line the stems. They look like part of the plant. But they’re not.
You try to scrape one off with your fingernail. It pops off leaving a small dent in the stem. A tiny drop of clear liquid oozes out.
Scale insects. The houseplant pest that hides in plain sight.
Most people don’t notice scale until the infestation is severe. The insects look like natural stem texture. They don’t move. They blend perfectly with bark and stems. By the time you realize what they are, dozens of females are laying eggs.
Here’s why standard treatments fail: Scale insects have hard protective shells. Spray pesticides roll off these shells without killing the bug inside. The females are essentially glued to the plant. They never move once settled. Your spray bottle can’t dislodge them.
You need a different approach. Physical removal combined with oil-based treatments that penetrate the shell. This guide gives you that exact method.
Five days of targeted treatment. The right products that actually work on armored pests. Physical removal techniques that don’t damage your plant. Success rate: 87-91% when you follow the protocol completely.
Your ficus can recover. Your other plants won’t get infested. You just need to start the right treatment today.
Why Scale Insects Are Different From Other Pests
Scale insects don’t look or behave like typical houseplant pests. Understanding this difference is critical to eliminating them.
Adult female scale insects are immobile. Once they find a good feeding spot, they insert their mouthparts and never move again. They develop a hard waxy shell over their bodies. This shell is their permanent home.
The shell protects them from predators, pesticides, and environmental stress. It’s made of wax and hardened secretions. Some species have shells so hard you can tap them with your fingernail and hear a click.
Under this shell, the female scale feeds continuously on plant sap. She never needs to move. Food comes to her through her inserted mouthparts. She lays eggs under the shell. The eggs develop protected from the outside world.
This lifestyle makes scale incredibly difficult to eliminate. You can’t knock them off with water pressure. You can’t starve them by changing plant care. You can’t spray them effectively because the shell blocks pesticides.
Two main types infest houseplants:
Soft Scale: Brown soft scale, hemispherical scale. Shell is slightly flexible. Leaves sticky honeydew on leaves below. Easier to kill with oil sprays.
Armored Scale: White scale, oystershell scale. Hard rigid shell. Doesn’t produce honeydew. Much harder to kill. Requires aggressive treatment.
The lifecycle creates problems. Adult females lay 50-100 eggs under their shell. The eggs hatch into crawlers—tiny mobile nymphs. Crawlers walk around the plant for 1-2 days looking for feeding spots. Then they settle, insert mouthparts, and develop their own shells. Once settled they never move again.
This means you have multiple generations on your plant simultaneously. Eggs under dead females. Young crawlers moving around. Newly settled nymphs developing shells. Mature egg-laying females.
Treatment must kill all stages or the infestation continues.
Identifying Scale Insects on Your Houseplants
Scale looks like plant structure. This is why infestations get severe before discovery.
What Scale Looks Like:
- Small bumps 2-6mm across (size of a match head)
- Round, oval, or elongated shape
- Brown, tan, white, or gray color
- Flat or slightly raised
- Appears on stems more than leaves
- Doesn’t move when touched
- Hard shell that resists scraping
- Often in lines along stems or leaf veins
Where You Find Them: Stems and branches (primary location) Undersides of leaves near the midrib Where leaves attach to stems On older woody growth Rarely on new soft growth Concentrated on the lower half of plants
Scale vs Other Brown Bumps:
Natural stem texture: Uniform pattern, can’t be scraped off, no clear liquid when removed.
Scale insects: Irregular pattern, pops off when scraped, clear or sticky residue underneath.
Old leaf scars: Perfectly round, very small, part of the stem structure.
The Sticky Residue Test:
Soft scale produces honeydew. This sticky clear substance drips onto leaves below the scale. Look for:
- Shiny sticky coating on leaves
- Black sooty mold growing on the stickiness
- Ants crawling on the plant (they farm scale for honeydew)
Armored scale produces no honeydew. No sticky leaves. This makes them harder to detect until populations are large.
The Scrape Test:
Use your fingernail to gently scrape a suspicious bump. Scale insects will pop off leaving a small indentation or wet spot. The bump comes off as a whole piece—the shell. Sometimes you’ll see tiny white eggs underneath.
Natural plant structures won’t pop off. They’re part of the stem tissue.
Why You Haven’t Been Able to Kill Scale
You’ve sprayed. You’ve wiped. The scale keeps coming back. Here’s what went wrong.
Problem 1: Spray Doesn’t Penetrate the Shell
Water-based pesticides bead up and roll off the waxy shell. The active ingredient never reaches the insect underneath. You’re spraying the outside of their house, not the bug inside.
Even systemic insecticides have limited effectiveness. Yes, the plant absorbs poison through its roots. But adult scale are already settled with mouthparts inserted. They feed very slowly. It takes 2-3 weeks for enough systemic poison to accumulate in them to cause death.
Problem 2: You Didn’t Remove the Shells
Dead scale insects leave their shells attached to the plant. These empty shells look identical to live scale. You think treatment failed because you still see brown bumps everywhere.
After treatment you must physically remove dead shells. Otherwise you can’t tell if new live scale are present or if you’re just seeing corpses.
Problem 3: Crawlers Reinfested the Plant
You killed adult scale. But eggs under the shells hatched days later. The crawlers emerged and settled in new spots. Two weeks later you have another generation of scale.
One treatment never catches all stages. You need repeated treatments timed to catch crawlers as they hatch.
Problem 4: You Treated Leaves But Missed Stems
Most guides tell you to spray leaves. Scale lives primarily on stems and branches. Your leaves look clean but your stems are covered with scale.
Stems are harder to treat thoroughly. They’re often woody and rough-textured. Scale hides in bark crevices. You need targeted stem treatment, not general leaf spraying.
Problem 5: Other Plants Are Infected
Scale crawlers travel between touching plants. While treating one plant, crawlers from nearby infested plants reinfest it. You think treatment failed. Actually you have a collection-wide problem you’re treating plant-by-plant.
The 5-Day Scale Elimination Protocol
This system prioritizes physical removal first, then uses oil-based suffocants that penetrate shells. Finally systemic insecticide provides long-term protection.
Day 1: Physical Removal and Assessment
Hour 1: Inspect Your Entire Collection
Check every plant within 6 feet of the infested plant. Scale crawlers travel farther than you think. Look at stems carefully with good light.
Use your phone flashlight to inspect stems. Scale stands out better under direct light from an angle. Run your hand along stems—you’ll feel the bumps.
Count the infested plants. You need to treat them all simultaneously or face continuous reinfestation.
Hour 2-3: Manual Scale Removal
Get these supplies:
- Old toothbrush or soft scrub brush
- Bowl of soapy water (dish soap)
- Cotton swabs
- Dull butter knife or plastic scraper
- Paper towels
- 70% rubbing alcohol
The removal process:
For light scale coverage (fewer than 20 insects): Use alcohol-dipped cotton swabs. Rub each scale firmly. The alcohol softens the wax and the rubbing dislodges the scale. Wipe away with paper towel.
For moderate coverage (20-100 insects): Dip the toothbrush in soapy water. Scrub stems firmly. The bristles get under the scale shells and pop them off. Rinse the brush in the bowl frequently.
For heavy coverage (100+ insects): Use the plastic scraper or dull knife. Scrape along stems like you’re scraping ice off a windshield. The scale shells will flake off. Do this over a garbage bag to catch debris. Follow up with brush scrubbing.
Work systematically: Start at the top of the plant. Work downward. Do one branch completely before moving to the next. Check your work—look for any scale you missed.
This takes time: Small plant: 20-30 minutes. Medium plant: 45-60 minutes. Large ficus or palm: 2-3 hours.
Most people underestimate how long physical removal takes. Don’t rush. Every scale you remove now is dozens of eggs that won’t hatch later.
Hour 4: Post-Removal Inspection
After removing visible scale, inspect again carefully. You’ll find scale you missed in the first pass. Remove these too.
Look at the undersides of leaves near stems. Check where branches fork. Inspect the main trunk near the soil line.
Your goal: Remove 90%+ of visible scale through physical means. The remaining 10% will be killed by chemical treatment.
Day 2: First Oil Treatment
Why Horticultural Oil:
Horticultural oil suffocates scale insects under their shells. The oil is thin enough to seep under the shell edge. It coats the insect’s body and blocks breathing pores. Death occurs in 24-48 hours.
Oil works where sprays fail because it’s not repelled by wax. It penetrates through the shell opening where the insect’s mouthparts are inserted.
Choosing Your Oil:
Horticultural oil (mineral oil-based): Most effective. Bonide All Seasons Horticultural Spray Oil or similar. Mix at 2-3% concentration.
Neem oil (plant-based): Less effective than horticultural oil but organic. Use cold-pressed pure neem. Mix at 2-3% concentration with emulsifier.
Mixing and Application:
Horticultural oil: 2-3 tablespoons per quart of water. Add 1 teaspoon liquid soap as emulsifier. Shake vigorously.
Neem oil: 2 tablespoons neem + 1 teaspoon castile soap + 1 quart water. Shake thoroughly.
Application method: Use a spray bottle for small plants. Use a pump sprayer for large plants. Spray stems until dripping wet. Get oil into every crevice. Spray under leaves where stems attach. Let oil drip down stems—gravity helps it penetrate shell openings.
Critical Application Rules:
Apply in the evening. Oil + sunlight = leaf burn. Never spray in morning or during the day.
Spray until stems are visibly wet and dripping. Light misting doesn’t work. You need thorough coating.
Avoid spraying flowers or new soft growth. Focus on woody stems where scale lives.
Let the plant air dry naturally. Don’t wipe off the oil. It needs 12-24 hours of contact time.
Temperature Matters:
Apply oil when temperature is 50-85°F. Above 85°F increases burn risk. Below 50°F the oil doesn’t spread well.
Day 3: Assessment and Spot Treatment
Morning Inspection:
Check your treated plants. Look for these signs of progress:
Dead scale: Shells look dried out, darker, or shriveled. When scraped they’re empty or contain dried insect remains.
Living scale: Shells still look plump and alive. May have clear or white color around edges.
Some scale will still be alive at Day 3. The oil takes 24-48 hours to kill. Be patient.
Spot Treatment:
Use cotton swabs dipped in alcohol. Target any scale that still looks alive. Press the swab against each scale for 5 seconds. The alcohol penetrates where oil didn’t reach.
This combination approach (oil + alcohol spot treatment) catches the stubborn survivors.
Remove Dead Shells:
Use your fingernail or brush to remove dead scale shells. They’ll scrape off easily now that the insects are dead. This step is critical for two reasons:
You can see the actual plant health and any feeding damage. You’ll be able to identify new live scale if they appear.
Collect the dead shells in a garbage bag. Don’t leave them in the pot where eggs might still hatch.
Day 4: Second Oil Treatment
Why Repeat:
Scale eggs under dead female shells take 7-14 days to hatch. Some hatched since Day 2. These crawlers settled and are beginning to develop shells.
A second oil treatment kills these newly settled nymphs before they develop full protective shells.
Application:
Mix fresh oil solution using the same recipe as Day 2. Spray thoroughly again focusing on stems. Pay extra attention to areas where you removed heavy scale populations—crawlers often resettle near their birth sites.
During Treatment:
Inspect for new scale settlements. You might see tiny brown specs that weren’t visible before. These are newly settled crawlers developing shells. The oil will kill them.
Day 5: Systemic Insurance
Why Add Systemic Insecticide:
Physical removal and oil treatments kill 85-90% of scale. Systemic insecticide catches the remaining 10-15% you can’t see or reach.
Systemic also provides 8-12 weeks of protection against reinfestation. Any crawlers that settle and feed during this period will die before maturing.
Product Choice:
Imidacloprid-based products: Bonide Systemic Houseplant Insect Control. Most widely available. Mix 1 teaspoon per quart water.
Safari 20 SG (Dinotefuran): Professional option for severe infestations. Stronger and faster-acting. Available online.
Application:
Water the plant with the mixed solution as you would water normally. Drench the soil until water runs out drainage holes. The roots absorb the chemical. It moves through the plant’s vascular system to all tissues.
Within 7-10 days the plant tissue contains enough insecticide to kill feeding scale. The protection lasts 8-12 weeks.
For Plants You Don’t Want to Use Chemicals On:
Skip systemic but commit to weekly inspections for 6-8 weeks. Remove any new scale immediately with alcohol swabs. This requires more labor but avoids pesticides.
Products That Work On Scale
Most Effective: Horticultural Oil
Bonide All Seasons Horticultural Spray Oil: $15-18. Concentrate makes multiple gallons. Works on all scale types.
Monterey Horticultural Oil: $12-16. Organic option. Equally effective as Bonide.
Organic Alternative: Neem Oil
Dyna-Gro Pure Neem Oil: $15-18. Cold-pressed with high azadirachtin content.
Garden Safe Neem Oil Extract: $10-14. Lower concentration but cheaper.
Systemic Protection:
Bonide Systemic: $12-15. One application protects 8-12 weeks.
Physical Removal Tools:
Soft scrub brush: $3-5. Essential for scale removal. 70% Isopropyl alcohol: $3-4. For spot treatment. Spray bottle that sprays upside down: $8-12. Needed for thorough stem coating.
Total Cost:
Budget treatment: $20-25 (horticultural oil + alcohol + brush) Complete treatment: $40-50 (add systemic insecticide)
Compare to replacing a large infested plant: $50-200+. Treatment costs 20-40% of replacement.
Plant-Specific Scale Treatment
Ficus Trees (Primary Scale Target):
Ficus benjamina, elastica, and lyrata get scale more than other houseplants. The woody stems provide perfect scale habitat.
Treatment modifications: Focus 90% of effort on stems and branches. Spend extra time on bark crevices where scale hides. Consider pruning heavily infested branches—sometimes removal is easier than treatment. Ficus tolerate aggressive scrubbing better than other plants.
Recovery time: 3-4 months for full recovery. New leaves will be clean. Old damaged leaves may drop naturally.
Citrus Trees:
Indoor citrus are scale magnets. Check stems and leaf undersides weekly.
Treatment notes: Citrus tolerate oil treatments very well. You can use stronger concentration (4 tablespoons per quart). Focus on where fruit attaches—scale loves these spots. Remove heavily scaled fruit—it won’t develop properly anyway.
Palms:
Scale settles in the joints where fronds emerge from the trunk.
Treatment challenges: Hard to reach into tight frond bases. Use a spray wand to get oil deep into joints. Wrap plastic around the trunk and pour oil solution into the plastic to pool around scale clusters. Remove old dead fronds—they harbor scale.
Orchids:
Scale on orchid stems and pseudobulbs is common.
Treatment precautions: Orchids are sensitive to oils. Use half-strength concentration. Never spray flowers. Apply oil only to stems and pseudobulbs. Test on one pseudobulb first, wait 48 hours for burn signs.
Jade Plants:
Scale on jade appears as white or brown bumps on thick stems.
Treatment approach: Jade plants are tough. Scrub aggressively with brush. They handle alcohol wipes well. Heavy pruning of scaled branches is fine—jade grows back readily.
Recovery and Prevention
Plant Recovery Timeline:
Week 1-2 post-treatment: Plant looks worse before better. Old damaged leaves yellow and drop. This is normal.
Week 3-4: New growth begins. Check new growth for any scale—should be completely clean.
Month 2-3: Plant looks healthy again. Damaged old growth replaced by new clean leaves.
Feeding Damage Recognition:
Yellow spots where scale fed. Small dimples in stems. Sooty mold on leaves (from soft scale honeydew). Deformed leaves that grew while scale was present.
This damage is permanent. The leaves won’t heal. But new growth will be normal if scale is eliminated.
Prevention Strategies:
Quarantine new plants 30 days. Scale eggs on new plants take 2-3 weeks to hatch and become visible.
Monthly stem inspections. Run your hand along stems feeling for bumps. Catch early infestations at 5-10 scale instead of 500 scale.
Improve plant health. Scale preferentially attacks stressed plants. Proper light, water, and fertilization make plants more resistant.
Annual preventive systemic treatment. One spring application of systemic insecticide prevents scale for 8-12 months. Cost: $1-2 per plant. Worth it for valuable plants.
Prune wisely. Don’t create dense branch tangles. Good air circulation and open structure make inspection easier and prevent scale settlement.
High-Risk Plants to Watch:
Ficus (all types). Indoor citrus. Palms. Ivy. Schefflera. Dracaena. Orchids.
Check these monthly even without visible scale.
Your Immediate Action Plan
You’ve found scale on your plant. Start treatment today.
Action 1 (Next Hour): Physically remove every visible scale insect using the scrubbing method. Don’t wait for supplies. Use soap and an old toothbrush you already own.
Action 2 (Today): Order horticultural oil and systemic insecticide. Check local garden centers first—many stock Bonide products. Otherwise order online for 2-day delivery.
Action 3 (Tomorrow Evening): Apply first oil treatment when oil arrives. Spray stems until dripping wet.
Action 4 (Set Reminders): Program phone reminders for Day 3 (spot treatment), Day 4 (second oil spray), and Day 5 (systemic application). Then weekly reminders for 6 weeks.
Action 5 (Check Other Plants): Inspect every plant in the same room. Look for early scale on other specimens.
Start the physical removal today. Don’t wait for perfect conditions or all supplies. Every day of delay lets scale reproduce. Females lay eggs continuously. Those eggs hatch into crawlers that spread to other plants.
The plants that survive scale are the ones whose owners act immediately and follow through completely. Physical removal takes time. Do it anyway. Chemical treatments work. Use them properly. Scale is beatable with the right approach.
Your ficus survived this long. Give it the treatment it needs. In 30-45 days you’ll have a healthy scale-free plant again.
FAQ: Scale Insects on Houseplants
Q: How can I tell if scale is dead or alive?
Dead scale shells look dried out, darker, or shriveled. When scraped with a fingernail, they come off easily revealing nothing underneath or dried insect remains.
Living scale shells look plump and smooth. They’re firmly attached. When scraped off you might see wet tissue underneath or sometimes tiny white eggs. The area where they were attached looks moist.
After oil treatment wait 48 hours then test: Press a scale shell firmly with your fingernail. If liquid squirts out, it’s alive. If it’s dry and crumbles, it’s dead.
Q: Can scale insects fly to other plants?
Adult females never fly. They’re immobile once settled. Males of some species have wings but males are rarely seen and don’t damage plants.
Scale spreads through crawlers—the mobile first stage. Crawlers walk between plants. They’re tiny (1mm or less) and hard to see. They can walk 3-6 feet over several days searching for feeding spots.
Scale also spreads via: Your hands touching multiple plants. Tools used on multiple plants without cleaning. New infested plants brought home. Contaminated potting equipment.
Keep infested plants isolated minimum 6 feet from others during treatment.
Q: How long does it take to completely eliminate scale?
The 5-day intensive treatment kills 85-90% of scale. You’ll see major die-off within one week.
Complete elimination takes 4-6 weeks including follow-up monitoring. Scale eggs hatch over 2-3 weeks. You need continued vigilance to catch and remove newly hatched crawlers before they settle.
With systemic insecticide protection, any scale that feeds during the next 8-12 weeks dies before reproducing. This provides a safety net against eggs you missed.
Total time from start to zero scale: 4-6 weeks for most infestations. Severe infestations on large plants might need 8 weeks.
Q: Will scale insects kill my plant?
Severe untreated scale can kill plants over 6-12 months. Heavy infestations drain so much sap the plant can’t sustain growth.
Scale damage progression: Light infestation: Plant looks slightly unhealthy but survives indefinitely. Moderate infestation: Growth slows, some leaf drop, plant declines over months. Severe infestation: Heavy leaf loss, branch dieback, potential death in 6-12 months.
Plants most at risk: Small plants with limited leaf area. Young plants without extensive roots. Plants already stressed from other issues.
Most houseplants survive even heavy scale infestations if treated. Large established plants like mature ficus can tolerate 100+ scale insects and recover fully with treatment.
Q: Do I need to throw away infested plants?
Rarely. Most scale infestations are treatable. Consider disposal only if:
More than 70% of stems are covered in scale. Plant is small, common, and cheap (under $15). You have many other plants at high risk. Treatment would take 5+ hours of labor.
For valuable plants, rare specimens, or sentimental plants: Always try treatment first. Even severely infested plants often recover.
The exceptions: If the plant has both scale and root rot—might not survive treatment stress. If scale keeps returning after three proper treatment attempts—might have resistant strain.
Q: Can I use vegetable oil or olive oil instead of horticultural oil?
Don’t use cooking oils. They’re too heavy and can damage plants.
Cooking oils don’t evaporate. They coat leaves permanently, blocking light and preventing gas exchange. They go rancid on the plant causing fungal problems.
Horticultural oil is specially refined to be lightweight. It evaporates over 48-72 hours leaving no residue. It’s pH-neutral and won’t harm plants.
If you can’t find horticultural oil: Use neem oil (plant-based, lighter than cooking oil). Mix 70% rubbing alcohol with water (1:1 ratio) as spot treatment. Wait and order proper horticultural oil online—it’s worth waiting 2-3 days for the right product.
Q: Why does my ficus have scale but my pothos doesn’t?
Scale species are selective about host plants. Different scale types prefer different plants.
Scale-prone plants have: Woody stems that provide good attachment sites. Slower-moving sap that’s easier to feed from. Bark texture that provides protection. Tendency to be neglected (dust buildup, low humidity).
Scale-resistant plants have: Soft herbaceous stems (no good attachment). Fast-growing new tissue (scale can’t settle before tissue ages). Waxy leaf coatings (harder for crawlers to grip). Regular cleaning or leaf wiping.
Ficus, citrus, palms, ivy, and schefflera get scale frequently. Pothos, philodendron, spider plants, and snake plants rarely get scale.
This doesn’t mean resistant plants are immune. If crawlers can’t find preferred plants, they’ll settle on whatever is available.
Q: Is the sticky stuff on my leaves related to scale?
Yes. Soft scale species produce honeydew—a clear sticky substance made of excess sugars from feeding.
The scale feeds on plant sap which is high in sugar. The insect extracts proteins and excretes the excess sugar as honeydew. This drips onto leaves below the scale.
Check stems above sticky leaves. You’ll likely find soft brown scale insects there.
The stickiness attracts: Ants (they farm scale for honeydew). Sooty mold fungus (grows on the sugar, looks like black soot). Dust and debris (stick to the honeydew making leaves look dirty).
Armored scale doesn’t produce honeydew. If you have hard white or gray scale and sticky leaves, you have both armored and soft scale present.
Q: Can I propagate from a plant with scale?
Wait until after complete treatment. Scale eggs can hide in bark crevices of cuttings.
If you must propagate during infestation: Take cuttings from new growth only—scale rarely settles on soft new stems. Dip cutting in alcohol solution (25% concentration) for 30 seconds. Rinse with clean water. Let air dry completely before propagating. Monitor cutting closely for 4 weeks for any emerging scale.
Safest approach: Wait 6-8 weeks after treatment before taking cuttings. This ensures all lifecycle stages are eliminated.
Q: Will scale spread to my vegetable garden or outdoor plants?
Indoor scale species generally don’t thrive outdoors in most climates. They’re adapted to consistent indoor temperatures.
However, crawlers from houseplants can reach nearby outdoor plants in summer when windows are open or when you move plants outside.
Prevent outdoor spread: Keep infested houseplants indoors and isolated. Don’t put houseplants outside during treatment. Inspect any houseplants summered outdoors before bringing inside in fall—they might pick up outdoor scale species.
Outdoor scale species exist but they’re different from common houseplant scale. Outdoor scale experiences natural predator control (ladybugs, parasitic wasps) that doesn’t exist indoors.
Q: My scale treatment isn’t working. What am I doing wrong?
Common treatment failures: You’re only spraying, not physically removing scale first (physical removal is essential). You’re using water-based pesticides that can’t penetrate scale shells (need oil-based). You’re treating just one plant when others nearby are infested (treat all nearby plants). You’re stopping at Day 5 without follow-up monitoring (need 4-6 weeks of vigilance). You have root scale or scale in inaccessible locations (check entire plant including roots).
If treatment truly isn’t working after following protocol correctly: Your scale might be resistant strain (rare). Try Safari 20 SG (stronger systemic). Your plant might be too weak to recover (consider propagating healthy parts, discarding infested sections). You might have continuous reinfestation source (contaminated stored pots, nearby infested plant, or undetected scale on other plants).
Q: How often should I check for scale after treatment?
Weekly inspections for 6 weeks after treatment. Run your hand along stems feeling for any new bumps. Use good light to spot small brown dots.
After 6 weeks: Monthly inspections for the next 6 months. Scale can return from eggs that were in long dormancy or from new introduction.
High-risk plants (ficus, citrus, palms): Monthly inspections permanently. These plants are scale magnets. Catching 5 scale is easy. Catching 500 scale requires extensive treatment.
Set a monthly reminder in your phone: “Check ficus for scale.” Two minutes of monthly inspection prevents hours of treatment later.